A barricade built by protesters blocking a street in Caracas, 2014

The guarimba is a protest method of erecting street barricades or roadblocks that has been used against the governments of Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro. Although the erection of barricades in Venezuela dates back to the 1980s and 1990s by leftist university groups, the term has gained relevance during the governments of Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro, when it has become a pejorative and stigmatizing term. Government officials have used the term to disqualify and criminalize the opposition or opposition demonstrations.

History

Origin

According to Cuban dissident Roberto Alonso, the use of the term began during the dictatorship of Marcos Pérez Jiménez in the 1950s, when the resistance used churches as a refuge after acting against the dictatorship.[1][2]

Venezuelan non-governmental organization PROVEA said that a history of using barricades previously existed when left-wing groups in Venezuelan public universities used a similar tactic during the 1980s and 1990s.[3]

Roberto Alonso coined the term "guarimba".[4][5][6] Origins of the word guarimba are derived from the children's game of the same name that is similar to tag, where individuals jump from one circle to the other while avoiding being captured by someone.[4] According to Alonso, the word "guarimba" means "refuge" and not "barricade."[7]

Alonso said the protest method was inspired from the book From Dictatorship to Democracy by Gene Sharp, which he read in turn after 19 people were killed in the Llaguno Overpass shootout and President Hugo Chávez was briefly ousted in the 2002 coup attempt.[4] By December 2002 Alonso started sending emails criticizing Chávez and detailing future actions, until his addresses list amassed over two million contacts.[4] In an essay in May 2003 inviting people to participate in the barricades, he described the guarimba:[4]

EVERYONE head out into the streets IN FRONT OF OUR HOMES and remain there.... La Guarimba is total anarchy. Everyone does what they want, depending on their level of frustration.

Three "golden rules" were also proposed for the guarimba tactic:[4]

  1. Barricade streets near your home
  2. Don't move away from your home
  3. Don't participate in confrontation

2004 protests

A rally in favor of the 2004 Venezuelan referendum to recall Hugo Chávez in the capital, Caracas.

The first "guarimbas" began on 27 February 2004, lasted five consecutive days and took place mainly in middle and upper class neighborhoods of Caracas and fifteen other cities of the country.[8] The demonstrations sought to protest against the decisions of the National Electoral Council, after it announced that the signatures presented to request the 2004 presidential recall referendum had to be examined a second time,[9][10] and were initially promoted by the Bloque Democrático (Democratic Block), a radical sector of the opposition which rejected the recall referendum as "a trap of the regime".[8] Alonso told his family to leave his Daktari ranch and travel to Miami.[11] Alonso said that he and an opposition leader launched guarimba protests on 5 March 2004 and planned to have a military coup on 7 March.[11]

That year, the "guarimba" consisted in erecting barricades near homes, with garbage and fire, and remaining present as long as no security forces or pro-government supporters arrived. In many places, the barricades did not generate confrontation with security officials or related entities and generated violence. However, in some cases, demonstrators confronted government or pro-government forces, destroyed public property and used firearms.[8] In its 2004 annual report, non-governmental organization PROVEA registered that 27 out of 370 street closures between October 2003 and September 2004, resulted in violence, although it acknowledged that there was a significant underreporting of these. Around one out of every three demonstrations in that period were characterized by barricades.[12]

The state response was varied. While the security forces dependent on opposition mayoralties (including the Metropolitan Police of Caracas, the municipal police of Baruta and the municipal police of Chacao) refrained from responding to the protesters and in some cases even helped to erect barricades, bodies dependent on the national government -particularly the National Guard- responded to contain and repress the demonstrators. Such actions also varied depending on the time and place. On some occasions, the action was in accordance with the law, while on others it was outside of it: it was denounced that multiple protesters were beaten, injured or arbitrarily detained.[8]

Negotiations between the opposition and government agreeing on signatures led to the end of the protests.[11] The Venezuelan government described the guarimba as "systematic acts of violent and disruptive civil disobedience designed to protest President Chávez, generate headlines, and create fear among civil society" and called for the arrest of Alonso.[4] During the protests, 9 people were killed, of which at least 4 were due to the response of security officials,[8] hundreds were injured and 300 were arrested.[4]

Following the guarimba protests, Alonso became a fugitive, meeting with a group of fifty individuals known as the "Brigade Daktari" in April 2004, then fled to neighboring Colombia and arriving in Miami in late April.[4] Weeks later on 9 May 2004, Alonso's ranch was raided by the Venezuelan government, with authorities arresting dozens of Colombians and accusing them of being paramilitaries destined to overthrow the Chávez government.[4] Two days later on 11 May, Alonso continued to call for rebellion against Chávez, making radio announcements in Venezuela promoting guarimba protests, saying "the illusion that we are going to overthrow a Castro-communist dictatorial regime with signatures, that does not exist."[13]

2009 protests

President Chávez used the term at an event in Carabobo in January 2009, referring to protests against the 2009 constitutional referendum, saying "guarimba be formed, that guarimba must be dissolved immediately" and:[14][15]

2014 protests

A wall painting in Caracas criticizing "guarimbas", 2014
A mural previously criticizing the barricades changed to criticize the government, 2014
Barricade erected in Caracas in 2017.

Throughout the 2014 protests, protesters used homemade caltrops made of hose pieces and nails, colloquially known in Spanish as “miguelitos” or "chinas", to deflate motorbike tires.[16][17] Demonstrators cited videos of protests in Ukraine and Egypt as inspiration for their tactics in defending barricades and repelling government forces, such as using common items such as beer bottles, metal tubing, and gasoline to construct fire bombs and mortars, while using bottles filled with paint to block the views of tank and armored riot vehicle drivers. Common protective gear for protesters included motorcycle helmets, construction dust masks, shields and gloves.[18][3] Retired general Ángel Vivas tweeted that wires should be hung across streets as a defense against pro-government colectivos. The Venezuelan government issued an arrest order against him afterwards.[19]

This form of protest was particularly common in the Táchira state and was even used to protect demonstrations, preventing security forces from advancing into areas where rallies or marches were taking place.[20]

During the protests, on 13 February 2014, during his arrest in Valencia, Carabobo state, Jorge León and his companions were insulted as "guarimbero" and were severely beaten with the butt of guns, helmets and kicks. Jorge suffered a skull fracture and rupture of the left eardrum with loss of cerebrospinal fluid as a result of the blows.[21] When they were detained on 24 February and during their transfer, Andrea Jiménez and a companion were threatened with rape, death and dismemberment, insulting them with the terms "guarimberos", "squalids" and "bourgeois".[22] During their detention from March 12, 2014 in Barquisimeto, Lara state, Keyla Brito and her daughter Karkelys were stripped naked in the National Guard 47th detachment, being beaten while they were called "guarimberas" and "squalids".[23]

In another case, on 19 March 2014, a member of the Bolivarian National Police pointed a gun at Gloria Tobón's head during a protest in Táchira state, while another officer told him to "kill that bitch". Upon arresting her, troops poured vinegar in her face and beat her, calling her "bitch" and "guarimbera motherfucker".[24][25] Robert González and eight of his companions were arrested while protesting on 21 April 2014 in La Victoria, Aragua state, being detained for four days. During their confinement, they were beaten and threatened, including threats of death and disappearance, while being shouted at as "guarimberos". They were subjected to asphyxiation by tear gas cannisters, as well as food, water and sleep deprivation several times.[26]

A former official of the Bolivarian Intelligence Service (SEBIN) told the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Venezuela that its director, Carlos Calderón, was directly involved in torture within the agency. Among other ill-treatment, he placed plastic bags on the protesters, or poured water on them, and beat them to extract information.[27]

The head of investigative journalists at Últimas Noticias resigned after being told not to do a story on guarimbas and after the manager tried to force her to say that the guarimbas were funded, that they were not protesters and to conclude the story by condemning them.[28]

Traffic blockades were carried out in streets and avenues, mainly in middle and upper class residential neighborhoods nationwide, and became places where opposition demonstrations regrouped.[29] The "guarimbas" were a divisive tactic, generating accidental deaths and conflict among the opposition itself. Critics have argued that it has been a counterproductive method that has affected local residents and businesses with little political impact.[30] The government of Nicolás Maduro took advantage of them to disqualify the opposition as "fascist" and "violent".[29][31]

2017 protests

During the 2017 protests, a military cadence of Bolivarian Intelligence Service (SEBIN) officers, where they express wanting to kill protesters, went viral: "Quisiera tener un puñal de acero para degollar a un maldito guarimbero" (Spanish: I wish I had a steel dagger to slit the throat of a damn guarimbero).[32][33][34]

In some cases, neighbors took garbage to the streets to protest against the lack of garbage collection in their neighborhoods. In Villa del Rosario, Zulia state, there were sectors that had been without street cleaning for up to six months.[35]

After the activation of Plan Zamora during the protests, the number of arbitrary arrests and people tried before military courts increased significantly. Those detained were generally accused of being "guarimberos," a term that is not defined under the military terminology, and of the crime of "affront to the sentinel" (military personnel).[36] On July 2, 2017, a group of twenty-eight students from the Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador in Maracay, Aragua state, who were staying overnight on campus as part of demonstrations were arrested in the early morning. The security forces raided the university, tied up and beat the security guards, and threatened and beat the students as they were taken away, while calling them "guarimberos".[37] In another protest, a "trancazo" in the vicinity of the Caracas Sambil shopping mall, multiple protesters were detained in July and subsequently tortured. One of them, in addition to being threatened and beaten, had dirt poured on a head wound caused by the beatings, had pepper spray thrown in his face, had his hair cut with a knife and had his clothes torn, being accused of being a "guarimbero" and extorting him for money to be released.[38] Orlando Moreno, a student and representative of the Come Venezuela opposition party, was hung in a stress position in La Pica Prison after being arrested on 27 June and refusing to make a video confession. Moreno spent nine hours in the position, in which he could barely touch the ground with the tips of his toes, being called a "guarimbero" and beaten.[39] On 20 July 2017, National Guardsmen broke into the home of Reny Elías to arrest him, an employee of the Health Secretariat of the Zulia governor's office. He was taken to a place where he was forced to lie on the floor along with twenty other people, where officers of the Bolivarian National Police insulted them, calling them "damned guarimberos" and threatening to kill them. They trampled them, beat them with rifles and threw tear gas and water in their faces, telling them "Tell the opposition to come and get you out of here!".[37]

On 30 July, the day of the Constituent Assembly elections in San Cristóbal, Táchira state, a demonstrator was intercepted by armed men wearing balaclavas as he was returning home. One of them told him "You are a guarimbero!", hitting him on the head and arresting him. The protester was forced to hold Molotov cocktails while they took pictures of him and to record an incriminating video, pointing to local youths of being leaders of the Resistencia and claiming that they had paid him 100,000 bolivars to participate in the protest.[40]

Organization and tactics

According to PROVEA, guarimberos, or those who engage in guarimba tactics, are organized through social media and are not related to specific political groups.[3] The human rights group also says that while guarimberos help regulate the conflict between authorities and protesters, they do occasionally instigate confrontation.[3]

During the 2014 protests, retired general Ángel Vivas tweeted a suggestion that wires should be hung across streets as a defense against pro-government colectivos. The Venezuelan government issued an arrest order against him afterwards.[19]

Protesters have used homemade caltrops made of hose pieces and nails, colloquially known in Spanish as “miguelitos” or "chinas", to deflate motorbike tires.[16][17] Demonstrators have cited videos of protests in Ukraine and Egypt as inspiration for their tactics in defending barricades and repelling government forces, such as using common items such as beer bottles, metal tubing, and gasoline to construct fire bombs and mortars, while using bottles filled with paint to block the views of tank and armored riot vehicle drivers. Common protective gear for protesters include motorcycle helmets, construction dust masks, shields and gloves.[18][3]

Government response

During the Bolivarian Revolution, particularly during the administration of Nicolás Maduro, the term "guarimbero" has become a pejorative and stigmatizing term, and government officials have used the term to disqualify and criminalize the opposition or opposition demonstrations.[29][41][42][43][44] In response to the construction of barricades, security agencies have been deployed to remove them in coordination with colectivos, pro-government civilian motorcyclists. The term has been used as an insult against opposition protesters, or people perceived to have participated in demonstrations, as well as other disqualifiers such as "squalid", including at times when they have been subjected to torture and/or mistreatment.[45]

On 5 March 2014, attorney Juan Ernesto Garantón sued the opposition mayors of Baruta and Hatillo before the Supreme Tribunal of Justice (Gerardo Blyde and David Smolansky), accusing them of collaborating with the closing of streets, stating that "although they have said they are against these protests 'guarimbas', there are no forceful actions to stop them".[46][47]

The Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Tribunal of Justice, through an interpretation of Article 68 of the Constitution on the freedom of assembly, ruled that demonstrations need authorization and that gatherings without prior authorization "may give rise to the police and security forces in the control of public order to ensure the right to free transit and other constitutional rights". The ruling contravened international standards for the protection of the right to demonstrate and facilitated repression by outlawing all protests that did not have a permit.[48][49]

Similarly, the president of the National Assembly, Diosdado Cabello, accused Dario Ramirez, national youth coordinator of the Popular Will opposition party and councilman, of financing the "guarimbas", stating: "Councilman requested an unpaid leave of absence. He has not returned, will he return? He left 'el pelero' and protesters 'guarimberos' who are paid by him are pending for his return".[46] Alexis Ramírez, governor of the Mérida, also accused the mayor of Mérida Carlos García, of the Justice First opposition party, of collaborating with the "guarimbas", accusing him of "doing nothing to clean up the debris that are on the barricades in Las Americas Avenue; on the contrary, he has been dedicated to helping these protesters “guarimberos” and his silence gives a lot to think about".[46][50]

In November, through an enabling law, Nicolás Maduro reformed the Organic Law of National Security to create the Popular System for the Protection of Peace (SP3). The Minister of Defense, Carmen Meléndez, stated that the SP3 was created due to "the constant threats that have been presented in the 15 years of revolution", including "the guarimbas".[51]

On 1 April 2015, the General Commander of the Bolivarian National Guard (GNB), Néstor Reverol, published a manual of normal and operational procedures related to public order. The manual describes the actions of the National Guard in response to the maintenance of public order and defines the internal enemies of the State. The document defines internal enemies as "those individuals who may be nationals or foreigners who are in the national territory and who maintain positions opposed to the policies of the national government" and includes "guarimberos" within such category, defining guarimberos as "those who carry out extreme street actions, putting at risk the life of persons or their physical integrity, causing deaths and traumatic injuries, as well as damage to their goods and services, implementing injurious means of blunt impact, metals, combustible material, inflammable material, fire and other artifacts". Although the manual recognizes that such a group may not intend to cause harm and may be demonstrating for lack of services or civil and political rights, it also states that military intervention is required, accusing them of generating violence.[52][53] The document also describes that "men, women, children and the elderly" may be "guarimberos", and therefore can be subject to the progressive and differentiated use of force described in the manual.[54][53]

The Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Venezuela had access to a December 2016 PowerPoint presentation prepared by the Strategic Command Operations (CEOFANB) which included the "guarimbas" located in sectors controlled by opposition mayors as part of "internal or external threats" to be responded to in a civil-military exercise. The presentation made refxerence between military and civilian groups to fight against "the enemy and the groups generating violence".[55]

El Helicoide originally had a cell known as "Preventive I" in its Access Area, also known as "Infiernito" (Little Hell), with dimensions of 3 x 5 meters and where new arrivals were held. By 2014, it was the only cell of this type, but when detentions began to increase, three additional areas were created later, known as "Preventive II", "Preventive III" and "Preventive IV". By 2015, Preventiva I was intended for common prisoners, while the other three cells were intended for students, Twitter users and "guarimberos".[56] One of the largest cells in El Helicoide was referred to as the "Guarimbero" cell, itself an annex of the "Guantánamo" cell. While "Guantánamo" held the majority of non-political detainees, detainees arrested during protests or opposition were incarcerated in the "Guarimbero" cell. Both cells have been overcrowded and in very poor conditions, with no access to water or toilets, and where inmates have had to sleep on the floor.[57][56]

Public opinion

The views on guarimberos are polarized in Venezuela.[3] Critics have said that guarimbas affect local residents and businesses, having little political impact.[30] The government has opposed the usage of guarmibas[58][59] and has said that the tactic was to support a soft coup, relating it to Gene Sharp's ideas.[60] Opposition protesters have argued that guarimbas are also used as a protection against armed groups, and not only as a form of protest.[61]

In 2014, the majority of Venezuelans rejected guarimbas according to a Datanalisis poll; disagreement with the tactic was shared by 70% of opposition respondents and 87% of independent and pro-government respondents.[62]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "¿Qué son las 'guarimbas'?". La Vanguardia. 2014-03-10. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
  2. ↑ "¿Quiénes están detrás de las guarimbas?". CNN en Español. 2014-04-08. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kobelinsky, Por Fernanda. "Quiénes son los "guarimberos", la vanguardia callejera de las manifestaciones contra el chavismo". infobae (in European Spanish). Retrieved 2023-12-11.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Zeitlin, Janine (11 October 2007). "War on Hugo Chávez". Miami New Times. Archived from the original on 20 July 2008. 'The real genesis for the plan, Alonso says, is an 88-page booklet, From Dictatorship to Democracy'; 'In December 2002, Alonso began feverishly e-mailing alertas criticizing Chávez and describing future action. His contact list swelled to more than two million e-mail addresses.'
  5. ↑ "Dirigente opositor radical denuncia allanamiento de su residencia en Venezuela". El Universo (in Spanish). 2004-05-17. Retrieved 2023-11-16.
  6. ↑ Lander, Luis E.; López Maya, Margarita (January 2005). "Referendo revocatorio Elecciones Regionales en Venezuela". Revista Venezolana de Economía y Ciencias Sociales. Universidad Central de Venezuela. 11 (1). the CD, which called civil disobedience which triggered five days of violence in some cities of the country, an event known as 'La guarimba', 'El guarimbazo' or 'El plan guarimba'. ... the Democratic Bloc (BD), ... among other means on the internet and for several months, an action of protest or 'civil disobedience' that consisted of the massive closure of streets - with garbage, tires, cars - in front of or near the home of each protester. Its objective was to provoke a generalized situation of anarchy and violence that incited the intervention of the Armed Forces to overthrow the President, an objective that was not achieved. Although the CD never recognized any link with the BD's proposal, the similarity of the protest actions in those days generalized the use of the name with which it circulated on the internet. ... Mr. Robert Alonso, from the BD, commanded, through a network built by him, this plan (La guarimba).
  7. ↑ "Robert Alonso Presenta Ésta es la estrategia libertaria!". robertalonsopresenta.com. Retrieved 2023-12-28.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 PROVEA (September 2004). Contexto y Balance de Situación (PDF). pp. 11, 16. Retrieved 30 December 2023.
  9. ↑ "Capturan "paramilitares" en Venezuela". BBC News. 9 May 2004. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
  10. ↑ Zeitlin, Janine (11 October 2007). "War on Hugo Chávez". Miami New Times. Archived from the original on 20 July 2008. 'The real genesis for the plan, Alonso says, is an 88-page booklet, From Dictatorship to Democracy'; 'In December 2002, Alonso began feverishly e-mailing alertas criticizing Chávez and describing future action. His contact list swelled to more than two million e-mail addresses.'
  11. 1 2 3 Zeitlin, Janine (11 October 2007). "War on Hugo Chávez". Miami New Times. Archived from the original on 20 July 2008.
  12. ↑ PROVEA (September 2004). Respuestas organizativas de la sociedad (PDF). Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  13. ↑ "Ex presidente y líder de oposición llaman a la rebelión en Venezuela". El Universo (in Spanish). 2004-05-12. Retrieved 2023-12-28.
  14. ↑ "Chávez ordenó "echarle gas" a los opositores". infobae (in European Spanish). 2017-10-29. Retrieved 2023-12-19.
  15. ↑ "Venezuela.- Chávez ordena echar gas "del bueno" contra las manifestaciones de estudiantes". Europa Press. 18 January 2009. Retrieved 2023-12-19.
  16. 1 2 Hallan “miguelitos” y clavos en barricadas de Ciudad Ojeda: FOTOS+VIDEO Archived 13 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  17. 1 2 "Guarimbas con miguelitos y chinas: el idioma de las protestas venezolanas- América Latina- Reuters". Archived from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 7 March 2016.
  18. 1 2 Neuman, William (26 February 2014). "Crude Weapons Help Fuel Unrest in Bastion of Venezuelan Opposition". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
  19. 1 2 "Ángel Vivas, un general de Venezuela que atrincherado se enfrenta al régimen chavista". ICNDiario (in Spanish). Retrieved 2021-10-08.
  20. ↑ International Independent Fact-Finding Mission on Venezuela (ed.). Conclusiones detalladas de la Misión internacional independiente de determinación de los hechos sobre la República Bolivariana de Venezuela* (PDF). p. 321. Retrieved 30 December 2023. bloqueos de caminos, incluidas "guarimbas" hechas de diferentes tipos de objetos y elementos (como tablas metálicas o troncos de árboles, pilas de basura o escombros de obras de construcción)
  21. ↑ (Organization of American States 2018, p. 134)
  22. ↑ (Organization of American States 2018, p. 137)
  23. ↑ (Organization of American States 2018, p. 141)
  24. ↑ (Organization of American States 2018, p. 353)
  25. ↑ (Organization of American States 2018, p. 409)
  26. ↑ (Organization of American States 2018, pp. 149–150)
  27. ↑ (Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Venezuela 2022, pp. 103)
  28. ↑ "Los periodistas denuncian más de 100 agresiones en Venezuela". La Vanguardia. 7 April 2014. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
  29. 1 2 3 Márquez, Laureano (2018). "La dictadura". Historieta de Venezuela: De Macuto a Maduro. p. 142. Las protestas incorporan la trance de calles y avenidas, principalmente en zonas de clase media y alta del país. Se establecen las "guarimbas" como lugares de reagrupamiento de protestas opositoras. Se trató de una acción contraproducente que generó caos, muertes accidentales y conflicto entre los mismos opositores. El gobierno de Maduro las aprovechó para descalificar a la oposición como fascista y violenta.
  30. 1 2 "Street blockades divide opinion in Venezuela". BBC News. 27 February 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
  31. ↑ "Presidente Maduro presenta vídeo donde se observa a grupos violentos preparando guarimbas - Noticias Diarias". Retrieved 7 March 2016.
  32. ↑ ""Quisiera degollar a un maldito guarimbero": los escalofriantes versos que cantan los militares chavistas". infobae (in Spanish). Retrieved 2023-11-19.
  33. ↑ "Video: 'Quisiera degollar con un puñal de acero a un maldito guarimbero', gritan militares en Venezuela durante entrenamiento". Prensa (in Spanish). 2017-05-05. Retrieved 2023-11-19.
  34. ↑ "Funcionarios del Sebin entrenan con consignas de odio contra la oposición". Diario Las Américas (in Spanish). Retrieved 2023-11-19.
  35. ↑ "No es guarimba: Vecinos de La Villa sacan la basura a la calle por mal servicio del Imaur (FOTOS)". 28 June 2017. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  36. ↑ (Organization of American States 2018, pp. 49)
  37. 1 2 (Organization of American States 2018, p. 187)
  38. ↑ (Organization of American States 2018, p. 177)
  39. ↑ (Organization of American States 2018, p. 186)
  40. ↑ (Organization of American States 2018, p. 411)
  41. ↑ (Organization of American States 2018, p. 57)
  42. ↑ (Organization of American States 2018, p. 370)
  43. ↑ Observatorio de Derechos Humanos de la Universidad de Los Andes (3 May 2023). Obstáculos para acompañar a víctimas de violaciones de derechos humanos (PDF). Retrieved 13 January 2024. Funcionarios públicos del sistema de justicia penal en Mérida, mediante un lenguaje estigmatizador y violento diferenciaron en su perjuicio a estas personas y sus procesos judiciales bajo la denominación de "guarimberos" o "casos guarimba".
  44. ↑ Alvarado, Marino (10 August 2017). "Grupos paramilitares alentados por el PSUV ensayaron su despliegue en Lara durante protestas de 2014". PROVEA. Retrieved 2024-01-13. El sector oficial desarrolló una abrumadora campaña de rechazo y satanización, calificando a este tipo de acción con el remoquete de "guarimbas" y a quienes las respaldaban se les llamó "guarimberos terroristas", así éstos se convirtieron en el nuevo enemigo al que había que someter a sangre y fuego.
  45. ↑ (Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Venezuela 2022, p. 327)
  46. 1 2 3 CEPAZ (June 2015). Political Persecution in Venezuela. Systematization of patterns of persecution to Venezuelan political dissidents (PDF). Ginebra. pp. 39, 48, 49. Retrieved 13 January 2024.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  47. ↑ "Demandan a alcaldes de Baruta y El Hatillo por "colaborar con la tranca de calles"". Noticias24. 5 March 2014. Archived from the original on 6 March 2014. Retrieved 2024-01-13.
  48. ↑ Situación de la criminalización y represión en Venezuela- 2018 (PDF) (in Spanish). Caracas, Venezuela: Observatorio Venezolano de Conflictividad Social (published February 2019). 17 December 2023. p. 9.
  49. ↑ "Lo que hay detrás de las guarimbas". Armando.Info (in European Spanish). 2014-03-17. Retrieved 2023-11-17.
  50. ↑ "Alcalde de Mérida denuncia persecución judicial por parte del Gobierno". 25 March 2014. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  51. ↑ (Organization of American States 2018, pp. 357–358)
  52. ↑ (Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Venezuela 2020, p. 313)
  53. 1 2 Bolivarian National Guard (1 April 2015). Manual de Normas y Procedimientos Operativos del Servicio De Policía Administrativa Especial y de Investigación Penal en Apoyo a la Administración Pública en Materia de Orden Público [Manual of Operational Standards and Procedures of the Special Administrative and Criminal Investigation Police Service in Support of the Public Administration in Public Order Matters] (in Spanish). pp. 69, 79. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
  54. ↑ (Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Venezuela 2020, p. 405)
  55. ↑ (Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Venezuela 2020, p. 318)
  56. 1 2 (Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Venezuela 2022, p. 87)
  57. ↑ (Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Venezuela 2020, p. 90)
  58. ↑ "A la pregunta sobre si la motivación de las guarimbas es “protestar por unos problemas”, o sacar a Maduro del poder, 36,9% cree que lo hacen como protesta, pero 63,1% dijo que tienen como objetivo sacar del poder a Maduro. El porcentaje más alto (78,7%) corresponde a los más pobres, de las clases D y E. Como ven, en esos estratos socioeconómicos hay mayor conciencia de los verdaderos fines de la red de guarimbas, donde los niveles de rechazo son más altos." "Repudio a las guarimbas" at Ultimas Noticias Archived 2 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  59. ↑ "Presidente Maduro presenta vídeo donde se observa a grupos violentos preparando guarimbas - Noticias Diarias". Retrieved 7 March 2016.
  60. ↑ Solano, Luisana (2014-04-07). "Rodríguez Torres: "Usamos métodos constitucionales"". Runrunes (in Spanish). Retrieved 2023-12-11.
  61. ↑ "noticiascentro.com". Archived from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 7 March 2016.
  62. ↑ "Uso de barricadas contra o governo divide oposição na Venezuela". BBC News (in Brazilian Portuguese). 2014-04-09. Retrieved 2023-12-11.

Biliography

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Barricades in Venezuela.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.