German fortresses (German: "Festungen"; called pockets by the Allies) during World War II were bridgeheads, cities, islands and towns designated by Adolf Hitler as areas that were to be fortified and stocked with food and ammunition in order to hold out against Allied offensives.

An Atlantic Wall Bunker

The fortress doctrine evolved towards the end of World War II, when the German leadership had not yet accepted defeat, but had begun to realize that drastic measures were required to forestall inevitable offensives on the Reich. The first such stronghold was Stalingrad.[1]

Eastern Front fortresses

On the Eastern Front, Warsaw, Budapest, Kolberg, Königsberg, Küstrin, Danzig and Breslau were some of the large cities selected as strongholds.

Western Front fortresses

On the Western Front, Hitler declared eleven major ports as fortresses on 19 January 1944: IJmuiden, the Hook of Holland, Dunkirk, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Le Havre, Cherbourg, Saint-Malo, Brest, Lorient, Saint-Nazaire and the Gironde estuary. In February and March 1944 three more coastal areas were declared to be fortresses: the Channel Islands, Calais and La Rochelle.[2]

Fate of the fortresses

The fate of the fortress areas varied. Stalingrad, the first to fall, is seen as a crucial turning point in the war, and one of the key battles which led to German defeat. In several cases, Alderney, for example, the fortresses were bypassed by the attackers and did not fall, surrendering only after the unconditional surrender of Germany. One fortress, Fortress Courland, would see guerrilla war being waged in the area from 1945 to 1960s by Lithuanian partisans and a few Germans who fought as Forest Brothers, with individual guerrillas remaining in hiding and evaded capture into the 1980s.

Fortresses Siege Commander Besiegers Date declared Date siege started Date surrendered Length of siege Notes
Belle Île, Groix and Lorient, French State, Military Administration in France Lorient pocket Wilhelm Fahrmbacher Surrendered United States Armed Forces 19 January 1944 12 August 1944 10 May 1945 8 months and 4 weeks
Berlin, Province of Brandenburg, Free State of Prussia, Gau Berlin, Greater German Reich Battle in Berlin Bruno Ritter von HauenschildHellmuth ReymannErnst Kaether Adolf Hitler Helmuth Weidling Surrendered Soviet Armed Forces

Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland

c.1 February 1945 23 April 1945 (encirclement of Berlin complete on 27 April 1945) 2 May 1945 1 week and 2 days Called the Berlin Defense Area.
Bobruysk, Army Group Rear Area Command Bobruysk offensive Adolf Hamann (POW) Soviet Union Soviet Armed Forces 27 June 1944 29 June 1944 2 days Now called Babruysk.
Boulogne-sur-Mer, French State, Military Administration in France Operation Wellhit Ferdinand Heim Surrendered British Armed Forces

Canadian Armed Forces

17 September 1944 22 September 1944 5 days
Breslau, Province of Lower Silesia, Free State of Prussia, Gau Lower Silesia, Greater German Reich Siege of Breslau Battle Commander Karl Hanke Soviet Armed Forces 25 July 1944 13 February 1945 6 May 1945 2 months, 3 weeks and 2 days Now called Wrocław.
Brest, French State, Military Administration in France Battle for Brest Hermann-Bernhard Ramcke Surrendered British Armed Forces

United States Armed Forces

7 August 1944 19 September 1944 1 month, 1 week and 5 days
Budapest, Government of National Unity, Kingdom of Hungary Siege of Budapest Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch (POW) Romanian Armed Forces

Soviet Armed Forces

1 December 1944 24 December 1944 13 February 1945 1 month, 2 weeks and 6 days
Calais, French State, Military Administration in France Operation Undergo Ludwig Schroeder Surrendered British Armed Forces
  • Royal Air Force
  • Royal Navy

Canadian Armed Forces

25 September 1944 30 September 1944 5 days
Channel Islands Battle of the Atlantic Rudolf Graf von SchmettowFriedrich Hüffmeier Surrendered Allied Expeditionary Force 2 September 1944 Guernsey 9 May
Jersey 9 May
Sark 10 May
Alderney 16 May 1945
8 months and 1 week Surrendered after the surrender of the Greater German Reich.
Cherbourg, French State, Military Administration in France Battle of Cherbourg Karl-Wilhelm von Schlieben Surrendered United States Armed Forces 22 June 1944 27 June 1944 5 days
Courland Pocket, General District Latvia, Reichskommissariat Ostland, Army Group Rear Area Command Courland Pocket Ferdinand SchörnerLothar RendulicWalter Weiß → Lothar Rendulic → Heinrich von Vietinghoff → Lothar Rendulic → Carl Hilpert Surrendered 31 July 1944 10 May 1945 9 months, 1 week and 3 days Surrendered after the surrender of the Greater German Reich. See Army Group North and Army Group Courland.
Crete, Hellenic State, Military Administration in Greece Battle of the Atlantic and the Cretan resistance Hans-Georg Benthack Surrendered British Armed Forces
  • Royal Navy

Hellenic Army

4 October 1944 12 May 1945 7 months, 1 week and 1 day Surrendered after the surrender of the Greater German Reich. See Fortress Crete.
Crimea, Army Group Rear Area Command Crimean offensive and Kerch–Eltigen operation Erwin Jaenecke → Ferdinand Schörner → Erwin Jaenecke → Karl Allmendinger 1 November 1943 12 May 1944 6 months, 1 week and 4 days
Danzig, Danzig Region, Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, Greater German Reich Siege of Danzig Dietrich von Saucken 2nd Belorussian Front

Polish rebels

15 March 1945 30 March 1945 2 weeks and 1 day Now called Gdańsk.
Dieppe, French State, Military Administration in France N/A N/A N/A 1 September 1944 N/A Evacuated and liberated without opposition. Also see Operation Fusilade and Operation Jubilee.
Dunkirk, French State, Military Administration in France Siege of Dunkirk Wolfgang von KlugeFriedrich Frisius Surrendered British Armed Forces

Canadian Armed Forces

15 September 1944 9 May 1945 7 months, 3 weeks and 3 days Surrendered after the surrender of the Greater German Reich.
Gironde Estuary North, Military Administration in France Operation Jupiter and Operation Venerable Hartwig Pohlmann → Hans Michahelles Surrendered French Liberation Army

United States Armed Forces

  • 66th Infantry Division
12 September 1944 30 April 1945 7 months, 2 weeks and 4 days
Gironde Estuary South, Military Administration in France Royan pocket Christian Sonntag → Otto Prahl Surrendered 12 September 1944 20 April 1945 7 months, 1 week and 1 day
Hook of Holland, Reich Commissariat for the Occupied Dutch Territories N/A Oberst Flinzer Surrendered N/A 19 January 1944 N/A 5 May 1945 N/A
Ijmuiden, Reich Commissariat for the Occupied Dutch Territories N/A Colonel Stahmer → Hans Huttner Surrendered N/A 19 January 1944 N/A 5 May 1945 N/A
Île de Ré and La Rochelle, French State, Military Administration in France Siege of La Rochelle Ernst Schirlitz Surrendered 17 September 1944 7 May 1945 8 months and 3 days
Kolberg, Region of Köslin, Province of Pomerania, Gau Pomerania, Greater German Reich Battle of Kolberg Fritz Fullriede Soviet Armed Forces

Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland

November 1944 4 March 1945 14 March 1945 1 week and 3 days Now called Kołobrzeg.
Königsberg, Region of Königsberg, East Prussia, Free State of Prussia, Gau East Prussia, Greater German Reich Battle of Königsberg Otto Lasch (POW) Workers' and Peasants' Red Army Late January 1945 9 April 1945 3 months and 5 days Now called Kaliningrad.
Küstrin, Königsberg Nm., province of Brandenburg, Free State of Prussia, Gau March of Brandenburg, Greater German Reich Siege of Küstrin Adolf Raegener Heinrich-Friedrich Reinefarth Soviet Armed Forces 25 January 1945 February 1945 30 March 1945 1 month, 3 weeks and 5 days Now called Kostrzyn nad Odrą. A small number (<1,000) of the German garrison reached German lines after a breakout during the night of March 29/30 1945
Le Havre, French State, Military Administration in France Operation Astonia Eberhard Wildermuth Surrendered British Armed Forces

Canadian Armed Forces

10 September 1944 12 September 1944 2 days
Posen, Posen Region, Reichsgau Wartheland, Greater German Reich Battle of Posen Ernst Mattern → Ernst Gonell  Soviet Union Soviet Armed Forces

Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland

24 January 1945 23 February 1945 4 weeks and 2 days Now called Poznań.
Saint-Malo, French State, Military Administration in France Battle of Saint-Malo Andreas von Aulock Surrendered United States Armed Forces

French Liberation Army
British Army

19 January 1944 4 August 1944 17 August 1944 1 week and 6 days
Saint-Nazaire, French State, Military Administration in France Saint-Nazaire pocket Maximilian Hünten → Hans Junck → Captain Mathies Surrendered United States Armed Forces

French Liberation Army

27 August 1944 11 May 1945 8 months and 2 weeks Surrendered after the surrender of the Greater German Reich.
Stalingrad, Army Group Rear Area Command Battle of Stalingrad Friedrich Paulus (POW)Karl Strecker Surrendered Soviet Union Soviet Armed Forces 10 September 1942 (encirclement of Stalingrad complete on 22 November 1942 during Operation Uranus) early March 1943 5 months, 3 weeks and 1 day Now called Volgograd. By 1 November 1942, 90% of Stalingrad was occupied by Axis forces. On 26 January 1943, during Operation Koltso, Axis forces in Stalingrad were cut into two pockets, with Karl Strecker in command of the northern pocket and Friedrich Paulus in command of the southern pocket.
French protectorate of Tunisia Tunisian campaign Erwin RommelGustav Fehn → Erwin Rommel → Hans-Jürgen von Arnim Surrendered British Army

United States Armed Forces
Free French Forces
New Zealand Defence Force
Hellenic Armed Forces

9 November 1942 13 May 1943 6 months and 4 days
Warsaw, Warsaw District, General Government, Greater German Reich Lublin–Brest offensive, Vistula–Oder offensive and Warsaw Uprising Hellmuth Eisenstuck → Ernst Mock N/A 27 July 1944 1 August 1944 17 January 1945 5 months, 2 weeks and 2 days On 16 January 1945, German troops withdrew from Warsaw and the next day the First Polish Army, 2nd Guards Tank Army and 3rd Shock Army entered the city. Also see Festung Warschau

See also

Notes

  1. Griess 2014, p. 326.
  2. Wilt 2004, p. 108.

References

  • BBC article on Alderney
  • Europe: A History, ISBN 0-06-097468-0, the history of Europe; page 1038
  • Wilt, Alan (2004). The Atlantic Wall 19441-1944: Hitler's Defenses for D-Day. Enigma Books.
  • Griess, Thomas (2014). The Second World War: Europe and the Mediterranean. Square One Publishers.
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