Armando Normand (1880–?) was a plantation manager of Peruvian and Bolivian descent who had a central role in the Peruvian Amazon Company's perpetration of the Putumayo genocide.[1][2][3]

Between 1904 and October 1910, he worked for the company, which extracted rubber with slave labour.[4][5] During those years, he led a reign of terror against the local indigenous populations: committing 'innumerable' murders, tortures, burning of men as well as women alive, bashing the brains out of children,[6] and dismembering the natives.[7][8][9]

Reports and evidence of his crimes were documented by: Benjamin Saldaña Rocca in 1907,[10] Roger Casement in 1910,[11] and judge Carlos A. Valcárcel in 1915.[12] He was also included in the original 237 arrest warrants issued by judge Rómulo Paredes.[13] Over the course of six years in the Putumayo, he committed innumerable abuses against the native population.[14] He was arrested in 1912, but never went to trial and escaped in 1915.[15][2]

Early life

Armando Normand was born in Cochabamba, Bolivia around 1880.[16] He reportedly spent the first twenty years of his life in the city and its vicinity.[2] What little is known about Normand's early life, comes from an interview conducted by Peter MacQueen in 1913:[16][2]

"Our family was one of the first in the Province of Cochabamba, and I was afforded excellent opportunities for securing an education. After graduating from the Seminario in my native city, I spent two years studying law, but finally abandoned course and went to the Argentine. I attended the National School of Commerce in Buenos Ayres and graduated from that institution as a public accountant. Altogether I remained about two and one-half years in Buenos Ayres. In 1903 I went to London and studied for a few months at the Pitman School in Russell Square in order to improve my knowledge of bookkeeping and modern business."[16]

— Armando Normand, "A Criminal's Life Story: The Career of Armando Normand", The National Magazine, An Illustrated Monthly Volume XXXVIII: April to September, 1913 (September 1913)

Roger Casement recorded that he had seen Normand's certificate from the London School of Book-keepers dating to 1904, which qualified Normand as a bookkeeper.[17] Casement also mentioned another certificate, from another school with an earlier date.[17]

Career

While in London, Normand became friends with the Bolivian minister Avelino Aramayo, and through this connection he became acquainted with many influential people from Peru and Bolivia.[16] He left London in 1904, travelling to Pará, Brazil with a letter of introduction to Carlos Larrañaga.[16] Larrañaga was the regional manager for Suarez Hermanos, a famous rubber firm in Bolivia.[18] Since there were no open positions at the firm, Carlos referred the letter to Julio César Arana, owner of J. C. Arana and Hermanos Company.[2][18] Arana's company hired Normand, assigning him as an interpreter on a mission to Barbados to hire workers.[19][20] He returned to La Chorrera with around 30 men,[21] and was commissioned with those men to set up a settlement, and "trade relations" with Andoque tribes people.[22] The group established the station that would become known as Matanzas: and soon set off on slave raids and 'punitive expeditions' to hunt down natives with weapons, as well as forcing the natives to bring in rubber.[23][24][20] In 1905 Armando was made the co-manager of the Matanzas station, and became the chief manager 1906.[25][24]

By 1907, Normand as well as his employer Arana were the objects of complaints made by Benjamin Saldaña Rocca, a stubborn journalist from Iquitos who was determined to hold them responsible for their crimes.[26][27] Saldaña used the statements and first hand accounts from former workers of the rubber stations, publishing them in La Felpa and La Sancion, two small newspapers from Iquitos.[28][29][2][30] Thus for three years before Roger Casements visit, Armando's crimes were well known in Peru.[31] Armando left the company a month or two after Casements journey: he had requested in a letter to leave the previous year.[32]

"It was alleged, and I am convinced with truth, that during the period of close on six years Normand had controlled the Andokes Indians he had directly killed 'many hundreds' of those Indians—men, women, and children. The indirect deaths due to starvation, floggings, exposure, and hardship of various kinds in collecting rubber or transferring it from Andokes down to Chorrera must have accounted for a still larger number. Señor Tizon told me that 'hundreds' of Indians perished in the compulsory carriage of the rubber from the more distant sections down to La Chorrera. No food is given by the company to these unfortunate people on these forced marches, which, on an average, take place three times a year. I witnessed one such march, on a small scale…"[33]

— Roger Casement, "CONSUL CASEMENT'S REPORT", The Devils Paradise, The Putumayo (1912)
Photograph of the Matanzas rubber station, taken by Roger Casement. It is reported that limbs are often kept and eaten by the dogs kept by Armando Normand at Matanzas.

The locals who had been enslaved were expected to gather between 50–75 kilos of rubber depending on the quota.[34] From Matanzas, the natives were to travel to Entre Rios, a full two days walk with little to no food.[35][36] Natives working for Normand had to bring their rubber from Matanzas to a place named Puerto Peruano, forty or more miles away from the plantation. Previously, the rubber was marched to Matanzas from areas in the forest that were ten to twelve hours away by walking. Casement estimated the journey of the natives to deliver rubber consisted of no less than sixty miles: in some cases more. Casement stated the path was "one of the worst imaginable."[33] These marches usually occurred twice a year.

When Normand became the station manager in 1906, for every 15 kilos of rubber collected by the natives, he received 3 soles.[37] At the time of Casement's visit in 1910 Normand was making around 20 soles for every 15 kilos.[38] This was 20% of the stations generated profit.[39][40] The manager of La Chorrera told Casement that the company owed Normand 18,000 soles before a harvest of rubber in 1910. That translated to around £1,800, and Casement believed Normand's station would make £300 for that collection period. According to Normand, there were 120 men "working" for the Matanzas station, who could annually bring in around 16,800 kilos of rubber.[41] The number of captive natives "working" at Matanzas prior to Casement's visit is unknown. The manager at La Chorrera, Juan Tizon, also revealed that the Matanza's station had been run by the Company at a loss for a few years.

After meeting Armando Normand in 1910, Roger Casement wrote: "he is the ablest of these scoundrels we have met yet, and I should say far the most dangerous. The others were murderous maniacs mostly, or rough, cruel ignorant men... This is an educated man of a sort, who has lived long in London, knows the meaning of his crimes and their true aspect in all civilized eyes."[42] Armando left the company a month or two after Casements journey: he had requested in a letter to leave the previous year.[32] According to Normand, at the time he was "often ill and had symptoms of the dread beri-beri." When Victor Macedo heard about the request for resignation, he asked Armando to stay at the Matanzas station longer since they had no one to replace him.[37] When British consul George Mitchell and American consul Stuart J. Fuller visited the Putumayo in October 1912, they visited every plantation that atrocities were reported in, except for Matanzas. By then, the plantation of Matanzas was completely abandoned.[43]

Role in the Putumayo genocide

"Two Andoke boys. They had just arrived with their loads of rubber. Casement mentions that "this tribe, once numerous, is now reduced all told to probably 150 persons, murdered by Armando Normand".

The crimes that Armando Normand committed were witnessed by multiple members of the Peruvian Amazon Company.[44] The witnesses who came forward: include Roso España,[45] Joao Baptista Braga,[46] Genaro Caporo[47] as well as the Barbadians Westerman Levine,[46] Frederick Bishop[48][49] and Joshua Dyall.[50][51] Some of these first hand accounts were used as evidence in: the La Sancion and La Felpa[52] publications who exposed the company in Peru, Roger Casements report, and an extensive report released by the United States, relating to slavery in Peru.[53] Judge Rómulo Paredes included these accounts in his 3,000-page manuscript relating to the atrocities.[54] Paredes describes the section that Normand managed, as annihilated.[2] While judge Carlos A. Valcárcel initiated an investigative commission to find new information.[12][2] The first-hand accounts from ex-employees make up the majority of the 'Andoques' chapter.[55] Some of these crimes are described as such:

  • Judge Carlos A. Valcarcel stated that Normand imprisoned nearly a thousand natives in his section: who died from excessive whipping, time in the stocks, on top of starvation.[56] This does not account for the many indirect killings that come from starvation, exposure, or the demanding job of collecting and delivering rubber.[57] Valcárcel gives some of the names Normand's victims who died from flagellation and torture. He whipped and assaulted one of his concubines, 'Teresa' who died the next day from the wounds.[58] A witness knew of the natives Ursechino, Cajecoy, Agocoboa, who were flogged and left to die in the stockade.[59]
  • When Armando Normand abducted Teresa: he murdered three natives, including Teresa's mother-in-law.[2] Her husband, Doñecoy Andoques testified to this: and revealed Teresa's original name was Paccicanate.[59] Normand abducted the father of Doñecoy, who died from the cruel abuse dished out by Normand.[2] Normand threatened Doñecoy that he would be killed like his parents were if he tried to care for Paccicanate.[59][2] Westerman Leavine declared that over the course of six years: he had seen Normand personally killed 'many hundreds' of natives, including women and children.[60][61][62]
  • The first issue of Benjamin Saldaña Rocca's newspaper 'La Sancion,' contained an account from Julio Muriedas, who worked under Normand. Muriedas stated that Normand administered 200 whip lashes or more when his enslaved workers didn't meet a weight quota for rubber. At times when the natives flee, they are suspended by their hands and feet before fire is applied. This torture is done so that the victim, at times children, would expose where their family was hiding.[63]
An indigenous youth carrying a load of rubber, either from the Matanzas or Entre Rios station.
  • There were multiple witnesses to the murder of a native named Isolina, who was given to Normand as a gift of friendship. When Carlos Seminario gave an account of Normand's crimes to Victor Macedo, the manager of La Chorrera, then transferred him to another plantation. Carlos stated that Armando Normand killed Isolina over jealousy of an employee named Blondel. After allowing Blondel to sleep with Isolina, Normand had her hanged and cruelly whipped. Isolina later died of her wounds.[64]
  • Valcarcel charged Normand with the destruction of the Cadanechajá, Japaja, Cadanache, Coigaro, Rosecomema, Tomecagaro, Aduije, and Tichuina nations.[65]
  • Cut the arms and legs off a chief that he had captured.[66][67] The chief had refused to tell Normand the location of other natives who fled.[67] Casement does not obtain the name of this captain in his report.[67] Valcarcel does list the names of other captains Normand has killed with a machete: captain Jañigandoy with five people,[68] He has also cut the arms and legs off of numerous other natives: leaving them to die of the resulting blood loss.[69][70] One Barbadian named Clifford Quentin came forward, stating that he saw one chief killed this way.[66] This was because the chief did not get his people to extract rubber for Normand.[66] Quentin admitted to Roger Casement that he had killed at least three natives: whom he cut the heads off of at the bequest of Normand.[71] He personally killed a native women named 'Pandica' with a machete: ten other women died this way on his orders because they tried to run away.[68]
  • Normand murdered the captains Jemajegaina, Chemeje, Cadanecoja, and Jiticupa because they did not bring their people to work rubber.[72] The corpses of those captains except for Chemeje were burned.[65] He has also murdered the captains Toocue and Pichijup for not inducing their people to work rubber.[73] A witness saw Normand kill the son of Captain Napa along with ten other natives because they tried to run away.[74]
  • Pouring kerosine on men and women: before lighting them on fire.[75][76]
  • Westerman Leavine and Genaro Caporo both tell the same story: relating to the murder of three old natives and two women who were their daughters.[44] They were killed personally by Normand and their bodies were eaten by the dogs he trained.[77][78] Leavine also witnessed to other crimes that Caporo testified to.[44] One story includes a native chief who was burned alive in front of his wife and two children.[44] The wife was then beheaded: the children killed, and all were thrown in the fire.[79] Another crime the two were witness to, occurred when Normand killed a woman because she refused to be the concubine of an employee.[80][81] Normand wrapped her around a Peruvian flag soaked in kerosine before lighting her on fire: she was then shot.[80][82][83][84] Valcarcel gave another incident where a native named Jañaique was burned alive.[85]
"Charred bones of the Jeiviche and Cadañeineco Indians burned alive by Normand"
  • Normand starves the natives under his control: giving them no food, and little to no time to cultivate food.[60][86][62] On occasion Normand has used starvation until death as a means of capital punishment.[59] Normand has flogged, imprisoned, and starved natives with the following name: Oueschefo, Jole, Cadanellaje, the brother of Pacpadefachi.[87]
Charred bones of Paccicañate or Teresa, murdered by Normand

Arrest and disappearance

Normand travelled to Buenos Aires, then to Antofagasta, where he reportedly sold Panama hats for two years[2] At the end of 1912, he returned to his home town of Cochabamba, still using his birthname.[88] For a time, he started a business selling horses from Chile.[88] Upon learning about Roger Casement's report, Armando wrote a letter to Lima refuting the charges.[88] Shortly after he received an order for arrest & extradition to Peru: the authorities sent him to Guadelupe Gaol.[89] While waiting for his trail, in 1913 he participated in an interview with Peter Macqueen, detailing his life up to that point.[2][89] Normand's incarceration did not last long, in 1915 it was reported that 'Normand escaped with other henchmen of Arana to Brazil.'[2][15] There are no historical traces of Armando Normand after that.[2]

In literature

Angus Mitchell, the editor of Roger Casement's diary released in 1997, stated that the Matanzas station "in a number of respects it might be compared to the 'inner station' of [Joesph] Conrad's 'Heart of Darkness' and if there is a single figure that resembles Kurtz in this journal it is Armando Normand."[90]

Author of The Lords of the Devil's Paradise, Sidney G. Paternoster stated "Simon Legree's acts pale in comparison to those of Armando Normand, and surely if any one in the Putumayo is to be punished this man deserves to be made an example of."[91] Simon Legree was the cruel and sadistic slaver in Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin. Paternoster also dedicated an entire chapter to Armando Normand in The Lords of the Devil's Paradise, titled "The Crimes Of Armando Normand".[92]

While Fred Mustard Stewart changes the name, nationality, and location of a character named Jorge Ruiz, who appears in Stewart's 1973 novel, The Mannings, the character seems to be inspired by Armando Normand. Ruiz, an agent at the "Oro Blanco" rubber station "could have been a successful accountant in Caracas, but here in the jungle he had become a monster."[93]

See also

Bibliography

  • Slavery in Peru: Message from the President of the United States Transmitting Report of the Secretary of State, with Accompanying Papers, Concerning the Alleged Existence of Slavery in Peru. United States. Department of State. 1913. Retrieved 14 August 2023.

References

  1. ↑ Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 95.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Guillermo Páramo Bonilla, Carlos. ""Un monstruo absoluto": armando normand y la sublimidad del mal". Universidad Externado de Colombia · Bogotá. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  3. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 268. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  4. ↑ Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 265,434.
  5. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. pp. 47, 301. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  6. ↑ Casement, Roger (1997). The Amazon Journal of Roger Casement. Peru / Colombia: Anaconda Editions. p. 423. ISBN 1901990052. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  7. ↑ Casement, Roger (2000). The Amazon Journal of Roger Casement. Peru / Colombia: Anaconda Editions. pp. 373, 423, 424. ISBN 1901990001. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  8. ↑ Parliamentary Papers, Volume 68. Putumayo: Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons. p. 36. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  9. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 301. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
  10. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 234. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  11. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. London: Fischer Unwin. p. 265. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  12. 1 2 Valcárcel, Carlos (1915). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos. Peru / Colombia: The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. p. 159. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  13. ↑ Paternoster, Sidney (1913). The Lords of the Devil's Paradise. Paul & Company. p. 93. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  14. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter. The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Peru / Colombia: London: Fischer Unwin. pp. 268, 301. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  15. 1 2 The Annual Register. Longmans, Green, and Co. 1916. p. 352. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 MacQueen, Peter; Normand, Armando (September 1913). "A Criminal's Life Story: The Career of Armando Normand". The National Magazine: An Illustrated American Monthly. 38 (April to September 1913): 942. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
  17. 1 2 Goodman, Jordan. The Devil and Mr. Casement: One Man's Battle for Human Rights in South America's Heart of Darkness. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 122. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
  18. 1 2 MacQueen, Peter; Normand, Armando (September 1913). "A Criminal's Life Story: The Career of Armando Normand". The National Magazine: An Illustrated American Monthly. 38 (April to September 1913): 942–943. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
  19. ↑ Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 229.
  20. 1 2 Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 275. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  21. ↑ Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 333.
  22. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter. The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 275. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  23. ↑ Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 229-230.
  24. 1 2 MacQueen, Peter; Normand, Armando (September 1913). "A Criminal's Life Story: The Career of Armando Normand". The National Magazine: An Illustrated American Monthly. 38 (April to September 1913): 943–944. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
  25. ↑ Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 405.
  26. ↑ Goodman, Jordan (16 February 2010). The Devil and Mr. Casement: One Man's Battle for Human Rights in South America's Heart of Darkness. Putumayo: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 30, 44, 45. ISBN 978-1429936392. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  27. ↑ Hardenburg. The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. pp. 217, 234. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  28. ↑ Goodman, Jordan (2009). The Devil and Mr. Casement: One Man's Battle for Human Rights in South America's Heart of Darkness. Peru / Colombia: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 45, 46. ISBN 978-1429936392. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  29. ↑ Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 189.
  30. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Peru / Colombia: London: Fischer Unwin. pp. 217, 226, 229, 231, 234. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  31. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. pp. 234, 303. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  32. 1 2 MacQueen, Peter; Normand, Armando (September 1913). "A Criminal's Life Story: The Career of Armando Normand". The National Magazine: An Illustrated American Monthly. 38 (April to September 1913): 946. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  33. 1 2 Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 302. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
  34. ↑ Goodman, Jordan. "Mr Casement goes to Washington:The Politics of the Putumayo Photographs". Revistas. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  35. ↑ Casement, Roger (1997). The Amazon Journal of Roger Casement. Putumayo: Anaconda Editions. pp. 267, 277. ISBN 1901990052. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
  36. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter. The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 303. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  37. 1 2 MacQueen, Peter; Normand, Armando (September 1913). "A Criminal's Life Story: The Career of Armando Normand". The National Magazine: An Illustrated American Monthly. 38 (April to September 1913): 944. Retrieved 30 June 2023.
  38. ↑ Casement, Roger (2009). The Amazon Journal of Roger Casement. Anaconda Editions. p. 293. ISBN 9781901990058.
  39. ↑ Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 411.
  40. ↑ Parliamentary Papers, Volume 68. Peru / Colombia: Great Britain. Parliament. House of Commons. 1913. p. 140. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  41. ↑ Casement (1997). The Amazon Journal of Roger Casement. Anaconda Editions. p. 293. ISBN 9781901990058.
  42. ↑ Goodman, Jordan (2009). The Devil and Mr. Casement: One Man's Battle for Human Rights in South America's Heart of Darkness. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 124. ISBN 9781429936392. Retrieved 2 September 2023.
  43. ↑ Álbum de Fotografías: Viaje de la Comisión Consular al Río Putumayo y Afluentes. IWGIA. 2013. p. 22.
  44. 1 2 3 4 Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 331. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  45. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 221. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  46. 1 2 Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 237. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  47. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. pp. 301, 330. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  48. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 313. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  49. ↑ Goodman, Jordan (2009). THE DEVIL AND MR. CASEMENT: One Man's Battle for Human Rights in South America's Heart of Darkness. Peru / Colombia: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 103, 104. ISBN 978-1844673346. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  50. ↑ Casement, Roger (1997). The Amazon Journal of Roger Casement. Putumayo: Anaconda Editions. p. 376. ISBN 1901990001. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  51. ↑ Paternoster, Sidney (1913). The Lords of the Devil's Paradise. S. Paul & Company. p. 108. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  52. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. London, England: Fischer Unwin. pp. 216–217, 221, 226, 234. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  53. ↑ Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 358.
  54. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 42. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  55. ↑ Valcárcel, Carlos (January 1915). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos. Putumayo: The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. pp. 159–170. ISBN 9972941094. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  56. ↑ Valcárcel, Carlos (January 1915). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos. Imprenta "Comercial" de H. La Rosa. p. 159. ISBN 9972941094. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  57. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. London: Fischer Unwin. p. 302. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  58. ↑ Valcárcel, Carlos (January 1915). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos. The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. p. 163. ISBN 9972941094. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  59. 1 2 3 4 Valcárcel, Carlos (January 1915). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos. The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. p. 165. ISBN 9972941094. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  60. 1 2 Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 265.
  61. ↑ Casement, Roger (1997). The Amazon Journal of Roger Casement. Peru / Colombia: Anaconda Editions. p. 424. ISBN 1901990052. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  62. 1 2 Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 302. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  63. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. pp. 226, 228. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  64. ↑ Valcárcel, Carlos (2004). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos. The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. pp. 180–181. ISBN 9789972941092. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
  65. 1 2 Valcárcel, Carlos (January 1915). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos. The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. p. 165. ISBN 9972941094. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  66. 1 2 3 Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 394.
  67. 1 2 3 Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 315. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  68. 1 2 Valcárcel, Carlos (January 1915). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos. The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. p. 164. ISBN 9972941094. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  69. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. pp. 301, 315. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 20 July 2023.
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  71. ↑ Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 394,396.
  72. ↑ Valcárcel, Carlos (January 1915). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos. The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. p. 165,170. ISBN 9972941094. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  73. ↑ Valcárcel, Carlos (January 1915). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos. The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. p. 165,167. ISBN 9972941094. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  74. ↑ Valcárcel, Carlos (January 1915). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos. The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. p. 167. ISBN 9972941094. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  75. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 301. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 20 July 2023.
  76. ↑ Paternoster, Sidney (1913). The Lords of the Devil's Paradise. S. Paul & Company. p. 111. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  77. ↑ Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 352-353.
  78. ↑ Paternoster, Sidney (1913). The Lords of the Devil's Paradise. S. Paul & Company. p. 97.
  79. ↑ Paternoster, Sidney (1913). The Lords of the Devil's Paradise. S. Paul & Company. p. 95. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  80. 1 2 Taussig, Michael (1991). Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man (First ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 47. ISBN 0226790134. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  81. ↑ Paternoster, Sidney (1913). The Lords of the Devil's Paradise. S. Paul & Company. p. 96. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  82. ↑ Hardenburg, Walter (1912). The Putumayo, the Devil's Paradise; Travels in the Peruvian Amazon Region and an Account of the Atrocities Committed Upon the Indians Therein. Putumayo: London: Fischer Unwin. p. 331. ISBN 1372293019. Retrieved 20 July 2023.
  83. ↑ Paternoster, Sidney (1913). The Lords of the Devil's Paradise. S. Paul & Company. p. 96. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  84. ↑ Slavery in Peru 1913, p. 163.
  85. ↑ Valcárcel, Carlos (January 1915). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos. The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. p. 163. ISBN 9972941094. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  86. ↑ Casement, Roger (2000). The Amazon Journal of Roger Casement. Peru / Colombia: Anaconda Editions. p. 424. ISBN 1901990001. Retrieved 22 July 2023.
  87. ↑ Valcárcel, Carlos (January 1915). El proceso del Putumayo y sus secretos inauditos. The International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. p. 164. ISBN 9972941094. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
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  89. 1 2 Vavasour Noel, John. "Peru To-day: A Monthly Illustrated Account of Peru's Development, Volumes 5–6". No. Volumes 5–6. University of Chicago. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
  90. ↑ Casement, Roger (1997). The Amazon Journal of Roger Casement. p. 253.
  91. ↑ Paternoster, Sidney (1913). The Lords of the Devil's Paradise. p. 116.
  92. ↑ Paternoster, Sidney (1913). The Lords of the Devil's Paradise. S. Paul & Company. pp. 92–116.
  93. ↑ Stewart, Fred (1973). The Mannings. p. 162.
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