In The Return from Egypt by James Tissot, Jesus, Mary, and Joseph voluntarily leave Egypt to go to Nazareth after King Herod's death

Voluntary return or voluntary repatriation is usually the return of an illegal immigrant or over-stayer, a rejected asylum seeker, a refugee or displaced person, or an unaccompanied minor; sometimes it is the emigration of a second-generation immigrant[1] who makes an autonomous decision to return to their ethnic homeland when they are unable or unwilling to remain in the host country.

Overview

The terms are used in slightly different contexts and can refer to:

  • The voluntary return of asylum seekers who no longer want to wait for a decision on their asylum application or who have changed their mind about the application and rather want to go back to their country of origin.
  • Destitute migrants, such as homeless people, who cannot afford the journey back home. Some homelessness charities provide funding for these journeys.
  • The "voluntary" return of rejected asylum seekers or irregular migrants to their countries of origin. Leaving voluntarily in this context can be somewhat euphemistic, as the alternative is often immigration detention and eventual deportation.
  • The most preferred of the UNHCR's three durable solutions for refugees because it is what most refugees seek.[2] Once the reasons for being displaced or having fled have disappeared and it is safe again to live in this country refugees are free to go back to their country of origin. The so-called returnees are still people of concern to the UNHCR and are, as such, under their legal protection. The UNHCR is monitoring returnee operations and offers support to returnees even after they have arrived in their countries of origin.

Some voluntary return programmes offer assisted voluntary return (AVR) and some voluntary return is spontaneous and independent without assistance.

Voluntary return of refugees

The concept of voluntary repatriation was first developed in the 1969 Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa. It was agreed that:

"The sending state, in collaboration with the receiving state, must make adequate arrangements for the safe return of refugees who request repatriation, while the country of origin must facilitate their resettlement and grant them the full rights and privileges of nationals of the country, and subject them to the same obligations."[3]

Controversies

  • The UNHCR and the hosting countries usually encourage the refugees to return voluntarily. The 1969 Refugee Convention expects states of origin to advertise repatriation, by using the news and media as well as Organisation of African Unity, in order to invite refugees back home. Equally the host countries are expected to spread such information and to ensure it is received.[3] However, the information that is spread about the improved and safer situation in the country of origin may be exaggerated, blurred or untrue and refugees may be encouraged to return home before the dangers and risks are fully removed.
  • As refugees are protected from deportation (or refoulement) by the 1951 Refugee Convention, some host countries may indirectly force them to leave by gradually decreasing refugees' living standards and living conditions or by spreading lies about them to make them feel less welcome. This is similar to self-deportation.
  • In some countries, the IOM's programmes of "voluntary assisted returns" have been criticized. The "voluntary" nature of these returns, put forward in the media coverage of IOM interventions is considered as questionable, for instance in Libya.[4] According to the UNHCR, for whom "voluntariness is more than an issue of principle", if people's rights "are not recognized, if they are subject to pressures and restrictions and confined to closed camps, they may choose to return, but this is not an act of free will".[5]
  • Some countries offer financial support to refugees and rejected asylum seekers in order to facilitate the process of starting a new life in their country of origin. This could be considered as residency buyouts.

Support offered

The UNHCR and the IOM offer assistance to refugees who want to return voluntarily and to other people in need of support for returning to their home countries. This includes administrative, logistical, financial and reintegration support. Many developed countries also provide assistance and voluntary return programmes independent from the IOM and the UNHCR. Support includes making travel arrangements and paying for the journey. Support may also include financial support so that returnees can make sustainable investments and can build their lives again. Connecting people with networks and groups in the country of origin so that they will get support from local organisations.

When one takes part in assisted voluntary return programs (AVR), the applicant is giving up their claim as a refugee or asylum-seeker. Many times this includes a five-year travel ban restricting the individual from returning to the host country,[6] similar to deportation. According to interviews with IOM workers and files on return migrants who took part in their program, it is not uncommon for return migrants to feel pressured into applying to AVR programs due to financial hardships, lack of employment, fear of deportation, etc.[7]

Government policies and incentives

Europe

 Belgium – Return and Emigration of Asylum Seekers Ex Belgium programme: This program is open to asylum seekers and third-country nationals who want to return to their country of origin or to voluntarily emigrate to a third world country. As this program is voluntary, one can retract their application if ever they change their mind. Applicants are offered travel support, including counselling prior to departure, assistance during their flight and travel cost. Applicants are also offered some monetary compensation to get them to their home from the airport. Financial support is also offered to aid in the reintegration process, partially funded by the European Return Fund.[8]

 Denmark – with a history of financially incentivising the voluntary return of immigrants,[9] Denmark raised the amount to 100,000 kroner per person (around €13,000 EUR or US$20,000[10]) in 2009.[11] Peter Skaarup, deputy leader of the Danish People's Party, explained the scheme was aimed at immigrants from outside the EU and non-Nordic nations, targeting "nationals from non-Western countries who are struggling to adapt to Danish society". The Danish government also allocated 20 million kroner for city councils, to "motivate foreigners to return home".[12]

 France – from 2005 around 3,000 immigrant families were paid to voluntarily leave France. By 2007, under newly elected President Nicolas Sarkozy, the French government started an enhanced scheme offering €6,000 per immigrant family to return to their country of origin. Brice Hortefeux, Immigration Minister, stated that France "must increase this measure to help voluntary return".[13] In 2016, in response to the European migrant crisis, the government had rapidly risen the offer from €350 to €2,500 per individual.[14] In 2017, Interior Minister Gerard Collomb reconfirmed the commitment to raise the monetary offer for immigrants to leave France.

 Germany – with 35,000 voluntary returns in 2015, Germany allocated an extra €150 million over three years for migrants willing to return to their homelands.[15] The policy saw an increase to 55,000 repatriations in the first year.[16] In February 2017, under the 'Starthilfe Plus' scheme, immigrants were offered up to €1,000 each, or €3,000 to families, to leave the country and withdraw applications for asylum or residency.[17] As of October 2017, 8,639 immigrants had returned home via the government program.[18][19] In December 2017, under the slogan "Your country. Your future. Now!",[20] the German government began offering grants for new kitchens and bathrooms, as well as one year's worth of paid rent, in the country of origin of an immigrant choosing to return home.[21]

 Ireland – in 2009, the Republic of Ireland government began offering repatriations grants to immigrants from nations outside the European Union to return home. The move was motivated by the Irish economic recession, with the EU-funded project attempting to "persuade foreign workers and asylum seekers to return to their country of origin".[22]

 Italy – in 2013, the Italian government offered African migrants, mainly from Ghana, Libya and Togo, up to €500 to leave the country and travel onwards to Germany, France or northern European nations. Detlef Scheele, Hamburgs social affairs minister, dealing with multiple arrivals from Italy, declared that the immigrants had "no legal right to stay" and would return to Italy or back to their home countries.[23][24]

 Norway – in 2016 the Norwegian government offered the first 500 asylum seekers to take a 10,000 kroner "bonus" to leave the country voluntarily, in addition to the 20,000 kroner already offered per person.[25] Sylvi Listhaug, Integration Minister of Norway, claimed the move might "entice" immigrants to "voluntarily travel back by giving them a bit more money on their way out".[26]

 Spain – in 2008, struggling from recession and with unemployment towards 30%, the Spanish government proposed a 'Voluntary Return Plan'. Mainly targeting immigrants from South America, the Spanish labour ministry identified around 100,000 individuals from 19 countries which would be eligible for the scheme.[27] In 2011, Anna Terrón, Secretary of State for Immigration, claimed the scheme "helps everyone if those who want to return to their country of origin are able to."[28]

 Sweden – in August 2007, the Swedish government began offering asylum seekers who were rejected permanent residency the equivalent of £3,500 per immigrant for a voluntary return to their country of origin.[29][30] This resulted in a record 4,542 immigrants taking part in the scheme, and returning home in the first 8 months of 2016.[31]

  Switzerland – the Swiss government, following in the footsteps of Denmark, began a policy of confiscating any property of illegal immigrants with a value over 1,000 Swiss francs. However, the 2016 policy included an incentive for migrants to return to their country of origin, with the SEM stating that "if someone leaves voluntarily within seven months this person can get the money back and take it with them."[32][33]

 United Kingdom – in 2006, asylum seekers and illegal immigrants were offered up to £3,000 per individual to leave the country. Job training, education as well as travel costs were included in the scheme, with an expected uptake of 3,000 people, costing the British taxpayer an estimated £6.2 million.[34] By 2010, the annual cost had risen to £16 million, with Immigration Minister Damian Green announcing a reduction from the 5-year delay on re-entry applications, to further incentivise quick voluntary repatriations.

  • Assisted Voluntary Return for Families and Children: This program is open to non-European people with children and lone migrant children. They are given a cash grant of £500 to relocate and £2,000 to reintegrate to their communities per person.[35] One can apply to this scheme before their asylum claim has been rejected.[6]
  • Assisted Voluntary Return of Irregular Migrants: This program provides help to illegal immigrants and immigrants who have overstayed to return to their country of origin. They are not offered monetary assistance.[35]
  • Facilitated Returns Scheme: This aids foreign national prisoners, once they have completed their sentence they are given £500 cash and a reintegration package of £3,000. If they leave before the end of their sentence they can receive  up to £2,000 more.[35]
  • Positive Futures Project: This project is offered to young unaccompanied adults. After applying to an assisted voluntary return program, they can receive training to develop skills and gain additional education to help them build a home and have a career in the country they are returning to.[36]
  • Voluntary Assisted Return and Reintegration Programme: One can receive maximum £1,500 per person relocating to their home country. This program aids applicants with travel documents and booking flight.[35]

North America

 Canada – the Canadian government opted to not renew their 'Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration' pilot program in early 2015, after an evaluation by the Canada Border Services Agency. The program sought to reduce the number of failed asylum appeals and incentivize voluntarily leaving the country, but didn't achieve all its objectives.[37]

 United States – in 2018, the American government announced the end of temporary protected status (TPS) for 200,000 Salvadoran immigrants. The decision, implemented by President Donald Trump, gave an 18-month period for immigrants to find a legal route to staying in the U.S. or to return to their country of origin. The termination of TPS comes into effect on September 9, 2019, granting immigrants a grace period for voluntarily repatriation, before facing deportation beyond that date.[38]

Rest of world

 Israel – the Israeli government withhold 20 percent of asylum seekers' wages, in an attempt to encourage individuals to leave the country, where they will have access to the funds upon return to their homeland. The scheme was launched from May 2016, and currently applies to asylum seekers from Sudan and Eritrea.[39]

 Japan – after the 2008 recession, Japan initiated a policy of paying unemployed workers to leave the country, mainly targeting the Latin American Dekasegi population for voluntary return.[40] The incentivised scheme offered $3,000 (USD), plus $2,000 per dependent, and came with additional clauses that children of the returnee (second-generation immigrants) would not be able to later emigrate to Japan regardless of circumstance.[1]

UNHCR refugee return statistics

Voluntary return movements of refugees between 2014 and 1998[41]
End-year 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Returned refugees1,016,400767,5002,426,0001,434,400733,700603,800197,700525,900126,800
Voluntary return movements of refugees by country between 2014 and 2010
Returning from Returning to 2014 2013[42] 2012[43] 2011[44] 2010[45]
Total UNHCR assisted Total UNHCR assisted Total UNHCR assisted Total UNHCR assisted Total UNHCR assisted
AfghanistanIndia2101601207011050
AfghanistanIran4,5104,5108,2508,25015,04015,04018,85018,8508,4908,490
AfghanistanPakistan12,99012,26031,22030,39083,42080,00052,10049,160109,380109,380
AngolaBotswana430430
AngolaCongo180180190190
AngolaDRC12,48012,48015,57015,5701,5401,540
AngolaNamibia2,8102,810
AngolaZambia1,6201,6201,1601,1601,0909802,3702,370400400
BosniaGermany1800
BosniaSweden2000
BurundiDRC9009001,5001,5004804803,9403,9403,6403,640
BurundiKenya290290
BurundiTanzania51051035,20035,2003403401,0101,010
CameroonNigeria390390
CARCameroon3503502,5002,500
CARChad1,9701,9706,4706,470
ChadCameroon3803801,7101,710
ChadCAR270270
CongoGabon710710
Côte d'IvoireBenin100100110110
Côte d'IvoireGuinea390390
Côte d'IvoireLiberia12,21012,20018,72018,27071,9907,110135,110135,110
Côte d'IvoireMali160160
Côte d'IvoireTogo660660460410
CroatiaBosnia160160230230400110
CroatiaSerbia120120410410200200
DRCBurundi2902902602604904901,1001,100
DRCCAR6,9706,97031010790011,6400
DRCCongo10,07010,07062,87062,87046,39046,39076020
DRCSouth Sudan2,5102,510
DRCSudan4,47002,4400
DRCUganda5,5405,5403201021,910107,99006,18010
DRCTanzania100100
DRCZambia1301309,2709,270
EthiopiaSouth Sudan440440
IraqAustria360360
IraqEgypt100100
IraqFrance100100
IraqGermany320320
IraqGreece450450
IraqIndonesia960960
IraqIran280280
IraqItaly350350
IraqJordan750750
IraqKazakhstan2,3102,310
IraqLebanon110110
IraqLibya240240
IraqNew Zealand370370
IraqNorway250250
IraqSyria1,9601,960
IraqTurkey120120
IraqUAE430430
IraqUK740740
Iraqvarious/unknown60,88048,19082,27040,46067,09067,09028,82025,180
KenyaUganda320320
LiberiaCôte d'Ivoire17,59017,5901,1701,170920920
LiberiaGambia330330
LiberiaGhana4,7104,710470470180180
LiberiaGuinea5,5505,550120120
LiberiaNigeria170170
LiberiaSierra Leone1,0301,030
LibyaTunisia1,0500148,9500
MaliAlgeria2,3702,3709200
MaliBurkina Faso7,7407,7403,760110
MaliMauritania4,5504,5503,9002,050
MaliNiger6,3006,3005,6902,760
MauritaniaSenegal6,2106,2101,3701,3701,3901,390
MyanmarThailand3,0000
PakistanAfghanistan3,4500
RwandaDRC5,6505,6507,2007,20010,78010,7808,3508,35010,81010,810
RwandaUganda410410380380
SerbiaMacedonia250210160150
SerbiaMontenegro130130120120200200
SomaliaEthiopia4,4800
SomaliaEthiopia49049028,8300
SomaliaSudan1300
SomaliaYemen1,99002,62030110110
South SudanIsrael330160
South SudanUganda2802801,9101,910890890
Sri LankaIndia5004009107101,4501,2602,3101,6705,0405,040
SudanChad13,11013,11016,94016,94017,66017,66030,89014,6704,0000
SudanEgypt150150140120250250
SudanEthiopia270270
SudanIsrael100100
SudanLibya17,82017,820
SudanUganda1,6701,6708108102,6702,670
SyriaTurkey140,760068,5700
TogoBenin100100
TurkeyIraq2400
ZimbabweSouth Africa10060

Voluntary return of other migrants

Voluntary return statistics

Voluntary returns via IOM AVRR between 2014 and 2010[46]
Country/Territory departed from country/territory returned to country/territory
2011 2012 2013 2014 2011 2012 2013 2014
Afghanistan178342,0191,6241,304
Albania2853303261,239
Algeria11817614041
Angola108696976
Antigua and Barbuda11
Argentina231231407789
Armenia504532448435
Australia4784286998002242
Austria2,8802,6012,8962,2991127
Azerbaijan180220216249
Bahamas51
Bahrain1
Bangladesh1261,2082,0001,334
Barbados101
Belarus88281269188159
Belgium3,3584,6944,3883,4592511
Belize211
Benin200937197319
Bermuda4
Bhutan21
Bolivia300256225183
Bosnia and Herzegovina1642215009351,511
Botswana18123
Brazil1,9031,8021,418881
Bulgaria675114733076908275
Burkina Faso214620891
Burundi1031333429
Cambodia8315306430
Cameroon5211190159345
Canada8622,0241,244136727
Cape Verde18192525
CAR11
Chad16942315
Chile113183169120
China1873674657519
Colombia207346320293
Comoros526
Congo26142674
DRC8218710996
Costa Rica93212917
Ivory Coast15481215316
Croatia4276140120
Cuba1391520
Czech Republic2022231461737608264
Denmark646621911081923
Dominican Republic1,209171813934
Ecuador2752780356276
Egypt5429618517393221366501
El Salvador219479079
Equatorial Guinea4312
Eritrea11131113
Estonia829172381169
Eswatini32
Ethiopia1,1271,5155421,610
Fiji16101116
Finland3043273423181
France638611108
Gabon21
Gambia5622130076
Georgia45957061,1571,874
Germany6,3197,54610,25113,574162296
Ghana1710226324355222
Greece7607,2909,3257,35738715
Grenada21
Guatemala219282825
Guinea1021312161142244270
Guinea-Bissau15556833
Guyana4132
Haiti1,2116751
Honduras3357395113
Hong Kong37114469
Hungary365414353491303471,099517
India68515415604530
Indonesia297955561175145184139
Iran4315501,3461,219
Iraq2,6672,4721,9301,280
Ireland40235934018810191512
Israel39336415
Italy5068489938672617721
Jamaica14171317
Japan472472
Jordan2551666899
Kazakhstan58207182147
Kenya543153756848
Kiribati1
South Korea241164557
Kosovo1,5691,3341,5421,546
Kuwait122
Kyrgyzstan8011912381
Laos1412
Latvia7389829425516
Lebanon1039560143
Liberia19153418
Libya17284721827508082
Liechtenstein5
Lithuania476543661211415
Luxembourg10197116186
Macau7
Macedonia1,9611,8722,5262,387
Madagascar59115
Malawi3831512
Malaysia36231144422021
Mali21875532173126
Malta2939557213
Mauretania18183514
Mauritius232377375831
Mexico1,1418971725201905645
Moldova387310248199213149
Mongolia14632527458541
Montenegro2612783174
Morocco440894981,158135523482416
Mozambique121197
Myanmar1154872137
Namibia223417
Nepal147202205136
Nauru501746
Netherlands3,4732,9052,4892,269111085
New Zealand2332
Nicaragua1213414232535
Niger7882615483130
Nigeria2623689914609
Norway1,8131,7531,8991,6225414
Oman1
Pakistan5864,3245,6063,860
Palestinian territories84604121
Panama115733
Papua New Guinea53177278312213
Paraguay474604975
Peru23149149183207
Philippines192132244198
Poland1,1497531,9491,46334655244
Portugal594753692412231516
Puerto Rico1
Qatar1
Réunion1
Romania131312197113198168140776
Russia12117102,5612,6075,0484,538
Rwanda32403521
Saint Kitts and Nevis1
Saint Lucia1133923
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines5212
Samoa1411
São Tomé and Príncipe1623147
Saudi Arabia145
Senegal11124201328283
Serbia2,9213,9173,9334,570
Seychelles111
Sierra Leone625293723
Singapore34111
Slovakia9554505751141181188
Slovenia1111201611101
Solomon Islands11
Somalia99011,0051413
South Africa19724748362038
South Sudan1512074
Spain8237857588891412921
Sri Lanka1205847409374
Sudan66276161216
Suriname32465658
Sweden789898638141210
Switzerland1,1302,2891,65547853
Syria7713
Taiwan14
Tajikistan74454977
Tanzania91258958475035
Thailand491325172422
East Timor11
Togo1832521267431
Tonga621
Trinidad and Tobago485
Tunisia925199278451609139
Turkey200569618495384371256276
Turkmenistan1889744
Turks and Caicos3
Uganda47625170
Ukraine1597221699677789970
UAE7182
UK874253415950
United States761373241
Uruguay107394233
Uzbekistan148200159190
Vanuatu15
Venezuela34344534
Vietnam1371215251179
Yemen12879433582711404629
Zambia3420844
Zimbabwe9035512

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