Salvia divinorum, a dissociative hallucinogenic sage
Psychoactive plant phylogeny with active ingredient indicated

This is a list of plant species that, when consumed by humans, are known or suspected to produce psychoactive effects: changes in nervous system function that alter perception, mood, consciousness, cognition or behavior. Many of these plants are used intentionally as psychoactive drugs, for medicinal, religious, and/or recreational purposes. Some have been used ritually as entheogens for millennia.[1][2]

The plants are listed according to the specific psychoactive chemical substances they contain; many contain multiple known psychoactive compounds.

Cannabinoids

Cannabis plant

Species of the genus Cannabis, known colloquially as marijuana, including Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica, is a popular psychoactive plant that is often used medically and recreationally. The principal psychoactive substance in Cannabis, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), contains no nitrogen, unlike many (but not all) other psychoactive substances[lower-alpha 1] and is not an indole, tryptamine, phenethylamine, anticholinergic (deliriant) or dissociative drug. THC is just one of more than 100 identified cannabinoid compounds in Cannabis, which also include cannabinol (CBN) and cannabidiol (CBD).

Cannabis plants vary widely, with different strains producing dynamic balances of cannabinoids (THC, CBD, etc.) and yielding markedly different effects. Popular strains are often hybrids of C. sativa and C. indica.

The medicinal effects of cannabis are widely studied, and are active topics of research both at universities and private research firms. Many jurisdictions have laws regulating or prohibiting the cultivation, sale and/or use of medical and recreational cannabis.

Tryptamines

DMT molecule
5-MeO-DMT molecule
Delosperma cooperi flower
Delosperma lydenbergense flower
Delosperma nubigenum

Many of the psychedelic plants contain dimethyltryptamine (DMT), or other tryptamines, which are either snorted (Virola, Yopo snuffs), vaporized, or drunk with MAOIs (Ayahuasca). It cannot simply be eaten as it is not orally active without an MAOI and it needs to be extremely concentrated to be vaporized.

Acanthaceae

Species, Alkaloid content, where given, refers to dried material

Aceraceae

  • Acer saccharinum (silver maple) was found to contain the indole alkaloid gramine (not active and extremely toxic) 0.05% in the leaves, so it is possible that other members of this plant family contain active compounds.[3]

Aizoaceae

  • Delosperma acuminatum, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
  • Delosperma cooperi, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
  • Delosperma ecklonis, DMT[4]
  • Delosperma esterhuyseniae, DMT[4]
  • Delosperma hallii, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
  • Delosperma harazianum, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
    Delosperma harazianum
    Shibam, DMT[4]
  • Delosperma hirtum, DMT[4]
    Delosperma hallii
    aff. litorale
  • Delosperma lydenbergense, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
  • Delosperma nubigenum, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
  • Delosperma pageanum, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
  • Delosperma pergamentaceum, Traces of DMT[4]
  • Delosperma tradescantioides, DMT[4]

Apocynaceae

Asteraceae

Erythroxylaceae

  • Erythroxylum pungens: DMT[7]

Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

Alpina mueller
Acacia angustissima
Acacia-berlandieri flower
Acacia catechu
Acacia confusa
Acacia phlebophylla
Bufotenin molecule
Anadenanthera colubrina
Anadenanthera peregrina
Lespedeza capitata
Codariocalyx motorius
Virola theiodora
Lespedeza bicolor
Mimosa scabrella

1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-6-methoxy-2,9-dimethyl-beta-carboline, Plant,[48] 1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-6-methoxy-2-methyl-beta-carboline, Plant,[45] 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, Bark,[45] 5-Methoxy-N-methyltryptamine, Bark,[45] Bufotenin, plant,[45] beans,[44] Bufotenin N-oxide, Fruit,[45] beans,[44] N,N-Dimethyltryptamine-oxide, Fruit[45][49]

Lauraceae

Nectandra megapotamica, NMT[64]

Malpighiaceae

Myristicaceae

Ochnaceae

Pandanaceae

Poaceae (Gramineae)

Some Graminae (grass) species contain gramine, which can cause brain damage, other organ damage, central nervous system damage and death in sheep.[69]

None of the above alkaloids are said to have been found in Phalaris californica, Phalaris canariensis, Phalaris minor and hybrids of P. arundinacea together with P. aquatica.[71]

Polygonaceae

Rubiaceae

Rutaceae[78][79]

Phenethylamines

Mescaline molecule
DMPEA molecule
Peyote

Species, Alkaloid Content (Fresh)Alkaloid Content (Dried)

Beta-carbolines

Harmaline, a Beta-carboline
Harmalol molecule
THH molecule
Apocynum cannabinum
Calycanthus
Koeh
Elaeagnus angustifolia
Festuca arundinacea

Beta-carbolines are "reversible" MAO-A inhibitors. They are found in some plants used to make Ayahuasca. In high doses the harmala alkaloids are somewhat hallucinogenic on their own. β-carboline is a benzodiazepine receptor inverse agonist and can therefore have convulsive, anxiogenic and memory enhancing effects.[96]

Apocynaceae

Bignoniaceae

Calycanthaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Combretaceae

Cyperaceae

Elaeagnaceae

Gramineae

Lauraceae

  • Nectandra megapotamica, Beta-carbolines[97]

Leguminosae

Loganiaceae

Malpighiaceae

Myristicaceae

Ochnaceae

Palmae

  • Plectocomiopsis geminiflora, Beta-carbolines[97]

Papaveraceae

Passifloraceae

Badea

Polygonaceae

  • Calligonum minimum, Beta-carbolines[97]
  • Leptactinia densiflora, Tetrahydroharmine,[6] etc.
  • Ophiorrhiza japonica, Harman[6]
  • Pauridiantha callicarpoides, Harman[6]
  • Pauridiantha dewevrei, Harman[6]
  • Pauridiantha lyalli, Harman[6]
  • Pauridiantha viridiflora, Harman[6]
  • Simira klugei, Harman[6]
  • Simira rubra, Harman[6]

Rubiaceae

Rutaceae

Sapotaceae

Simaroubaceae

Solanaceae

Symplocaceae

Tiliaceae

Zygophyllaceae

Opiates

Opiates v opioids with different major subclassifications indicated

Opiates are the natural products of many plants, the most famous and historically relevant of which is Papaver somniferum. Opiates are defined as natural products (or their esters and salts that revert to the natural product in the human body), whereas opioids are defined as semi-synthetic or fully synthetic compounds that trigger the Opioid receptor of the mu sub-type. Other opiate receptors, such as kappa- and delta-opiate receptors are part of this system but do not cause the characteristic behavioral depression and analgesia which is mostly mediated through the mu-opiate receptor.

An opiate, in classical pharmacology, is a substance derived from opium. In more modern usage, the term opioid is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors in the brain (including antagonists). Opiates are alkaloid compounds naturally found in the Papaver somniferum plant (opium poppy). The psychoactive compounds found in the opium plant include morphine, codeine, and thebaine. Opiates have long been used for a variety of medical conditions with evidence of opiate trade and use for pain relief as early as the eighth century AD. Opiates are considered drugs with moderate to high abuse potential and are listed on various "Substance-Control Schedules" under the Uniform Controlled Substances Act of the United States of America.

In 2014, between 13 and 20 million people used opiates recreationally (0.3% to 0.4% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65). According to the CDC, from this population, there were 47,000 deaths, with a total of 500,000 deaths from 2000 to 2014. In 2016, the World Health Organization reported that 27 million people suffer from Opioid use disorder. They also reported that in 2015, 450,000 people died as a result of drug use, with between a third and a half of that number being attributed to opioids.

Papaver somniferum flower and scored capsule with latex.

Papaver somniferum

The plant contains a latex that thickens into opium when it is dried. Opium contains approximately 40 alkaloids, which are summarized as opium alkaloids.[6] The main psychoactive alkaloids are:

Mitragyna speciosa

Mitragynine
Mitragynine
7-Hydroxymitragynine
7-Hydroxymitragynine
Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl
Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl

Picralima nitida

Akuammicine
Akuammicine
Pericine
Pericine

Psychotria colorata

Hodgkinsine

Aspidosperma spp.

Plants containing other psychoactive substances

Plants containing other psychoactive substances
Substance(s)PlantComments

Asarone


Acorus calamus

Toxic.

Yohimbine

Alchornea floribunda α2-adrenergic receptor antagonist.

Arecoline, Arecaidine


Areca catechu

GABA uptake inhibitor,[113][114] stimulant.[115]

Protopine

Argemone mexicana

Used by Chinese residents of Mexico during the early 20th century as a legal substitute for opium and currently smoked as a marijuana substitute.

Ergine

Argyreia nervosa (Hawaiian Baby Woodrose)

Seeds contain ergine (also known as LSA), often 50-150X the amounts found in Ipomoea violacea. LSA is a hallucinogen.[116]

Thujone


Artemisia absinthium

Also called "wormwood". GABA receptor antagonist.[117]
Quinoline & Aporphine alkaloids

Asimina triloba (Paw Paw)

Identical alkaloid to morphine.[118]

Tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, atropine, hyoscyamine)


Atropa belladonna

Commonly known as 'deadly nightshade'. An anticholinergic deliriant.[119]

Tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, atropine, and hyoscyamine)


Brugmansia

Commonly known as 'angel's trumpets'. An anticholinergic deliriant.[119]
Unknown

Calea zacatechichi

Produces vivid dreams after smoking. It is also employed by the Chontal people as a medicinal herb against gastrointestinal disorders, and is used as an appetizer, cathartic anti-dysentery remedy, and as a fever-reducing agent. Its psychedelic properties do not become apparent until the user is asleep. Reports describe rituals that involve drinking it as a tea to induce divinatory or lucid dreams due to its properties as an oneirogen.[120]

Caffeine


Camellia sinensis

Tea leaves, tea, native to Asia.

Cathinone

Catha edulis

Khat, commonly chewed, produces a stimulant effect.[121]

Vincristine


Catharanthus roseus

Catharanthus roseus is (perhaps unpleasantly) "hallucinogenic."[122]
Unknown

Cestrum nocturnum

Commonly referred to as 'night-blooming jasmine', 'lady of the night', and 'poisonberry'. It has an unknown mechanism of action.

Caffeine


Coffea arabica

Coffee beans, coffee, native to Africa.[123]

Caffeine


Cola

Cola or kola nut, traditional additive to cola, native to Africa.
(Unknown)

Coleus

Unknown

Bulbocapnine

Corydalis solida, cava

Bulbocapnine, Nantenine, Tetrahydropalmatine

Tropane alkaloids (Scopolamine, Atropine)

Datura

Also known as 'thorn apple', 'devil's trumpets', 'loco weed', and 'Jimson weed'. Scopolamine and Atropine are both anticholinergics[124][125] which produce hallucinogenic and deliriant effects. It has an extensive history of being used recreationally.[126]

Cytisine


Dermatophyllum

Nicotine-like effects. partial agonist of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs).[127]
Unknown

Desfontainia spinosa

Causes visions.[128]

Nicotine


Duboisia hopwoodii

Pituri
Unknown

Entada rheedii

African dream herb.

Ephedrine


Ephedra sinica

Ephedra

Cocaine


Erythroxylum coca

Coca. Widely used illegal stimulant, produces hallucination in overdose, native to South America.
Unknown

Fittonia albivenis

Nerve or mosaic plant, said to produce vision of eyeballs

Himbacine

Galbulimima belgraveana Galbulimima belgraveana is rich in alkaloids and twenty-eight alkaloids have been isolated including himbacine.

Glaucine

Glaucium flavum

Hallucinogenic effects.[129]

Possibly Cryogenine

Heimia myrtifolia Auditory

Possibly Cryogenine


Heimia salicifolia

Auditory[130]

Lobeline, Nicotine


Hippobroma longiflora

Star of Bethlehem

Hyperforin


Hypericum perforatum

Saint John's wort
Tropane alkaloids

Hyoscyamus

Henbane

Caffeine, Theobromine, Dimethylxanthines


Ilex guayusa

Ilex guayusa is used as an additive to some versions of Ayahuasca. According to the Ecuadorian indigenous, it is also slightly hallucinogenic on its own, when drunk in high enough quantities.

Ergine


Ipomoea tricolor & Ipomoea violacea

Ergine in seeds; up to 0.12% total[131] Produces psychedelic effects.
Unknown

Justicia pectoralis

Unknown
Lactucarium

Lactuca virosa

Lactucarium

Lagochilin


Lagochilus inebrians

Lagochilin is thought to be responsible for the sedative, hypotensive and hemostatic effects of this plant.

Pukateine

Laurelia novae-zelandiae

Pukateine
Unknown

Rollinia mucosa

Rollinia mucosa is said to be a narcotic.[118]

Leonurine

Leonotis leonurus

Both leaves and flowers (where most concentrated) contain Leonurine. (Effects reminiscent of marijuana)

Nicotine[132]


Leucas aspera
Nicotine

Leonurine

Leonotis nepetifolia

Both leaves and flowers (where most concentrated) contain Leonurine and several compounds. (Effects reminiscent of marijuana)[133]

Lobeline


Lobelia inflata

Indian tobacco
Unknown

Magnolia virginiana

[6]

Tropane alkaloids (scopolamine, atropine, and hyoscyamine)


Mandragora officinarum

Mandrake has deliriant and anticholinergic properties.[119]

Ergine


Some Mirabilis spp.

Possibly contains ergine, a hallucinogen.

Mitragynine, Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl


Mitragyna speciosa

Usually referred to as kratom. Has opioid-like and stimulant properties.[134]

Myristicin


Myristica fragrans

Nutmeg

Aporphine


Nelumbo nucifera

Sacred lotus

Nepetalactone


Nepeta cataria

Catnip

Nicotine


Nicotiana tabacum

Tobacco. Can cause hallucinations in very large doses.

Aporphine, Apomorphine

Nymphaea caerulea

Blue lotus or lily. Recent studies have shown Nymphaea caerulea to have psychedelic properties, and may have been used as a sacrament in ancient Egypt and certain ancient South American cultures. Dosages of 5 to 10 grams of the flowers induces slight stimulation, a shift in thought processes, enhanced visual perception, and mild closed-eye visuals.[135] Nymphaea caerulea is related to, and possesses similar activity as Nelumbo nucifera, the Sacred Lotus. Both Nymphaea caerulea and Nelumbo nucifera contain the alkaloids nuciferine and apomorphine, which have been recently isolated by independent labs.

These psychoactive effects make Nymphaea caerulea a likely candidate (among several) for the lotus plant eaten by the mythical Lotophagi in Homer's Odyssey.

Used in aromatherapy, Nymphaea caerulea is purported to have a "divine" essence, bringing euphoria, heightened awareness and tranquility.

Other sources cite anti-spasmodic and sedative, purifying and calming properties.


Ginsenosides


Panax

Ginseng

Morphine


Papaver somniferum

Opium. Widely used analgesic, native to the Old World.[136]
Unknown

Phytolacca americana

Narcotic and toxic when the root is consumed.[118]

Yohimbine


Pausinystalia johimbe

α2-adrenergic receptor antagonist.
Unknown

Pedicularis densiflora

Indian warrior

Kavalactones

Piper methysticum

An anxiolytic[137] and hypnotic.[138] Often advertised as a 'healthier' alternative to alcohol.

Ergine


Rivea corymbosa

Seeds contain ergine, lysergol, and turbicoryn; lysergic acid alkaloids up to 0.03%[139] Has psychedelic properties.

Salvinorin A

Salvia divinorum

Salvinorin A, 0.89–3.87 mg/g, also Salvinorin B and Salvinorin C[140]

Mesembrine

Sceletium tortuosum

Kanna[141][142]

Baicalein


Scutellaria

Known commonly as 'skullcaps'. Baicalein is a positive allosteric modulator of GABAA receptor.[143]
Unknown

Silene capensis

Produces vivid dreams after smoking.[144]
Unknown

Tagetes lucida

Anethole, Chavicol, Coumarin, Estragole, Isorhamnetin, Methyleugenol, Quercitin

Ibogaine

Tabernanthe iboga

Ibogaine in root bark. Produces psychedelic and a dissociative effects.[145][146]

Ibogaine

Tabernanthe orientalis

Ibogaine in root leaves. Produces psychedelic and a dissociative effects.[145][146]

Voacangine, Ibogaine

Tabernaemontana divaricata

Is a psychedelic and a dissociative.[146]

Ibogaine

Tabernanthe pubescens

Is a psychedelic and a dissociative. Contains ibogaine and similar alkaloids.[145][146]

Ibogaine


Tabernaemontana sp.

Is a psychedelic and a dissociative.[145][146]

Theobromine


Theobroma cacao

Cocoa or cacao bean, chocolate, native to the Americas

Ibogaine

Trachelospermum jasminoides

Exhibits psychedelic and dissociative effects. Contains ibogaine, coronaridine, voacangine, apparicine, conoflorine, and 19-epi-voacangarine.[147][148]

Valerenic acid


Valeriana officinalis

Possible sedative and anxiolytic effects. Valerenic acid is GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator,[149] and a 5-HT5A receptor partial agonist.[150]

Vincamine


Vinca minor

Vincamine.[151]

Voacangine


Voacanga africana

Voacangine is similar in structure to ibogaine. It inhibits AChE.[152][153]

Dendrobine[154]


Dendrobium nobile

Also contains phenanthrenes and dendrobine related alkaloids.

Possibly Genistein and Apigenin


Zornia latifolia

Zornia latifolia is sometimes combined with synthetic cannabis. It may produce similar effects to cannabis.[155][156] It is nicknamed Maconha brava because locals use it as a cannabis substitute.

See also

Notes

  1. Other psychoactive compounds without nitrogen atoms include kavalactones and salvinorins, known from kava and Salvia divinorum, respectively.

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